In the course of years, many social psychologists have acknowledged that comparisons with others may play a significant role in people's self evaluations (see Buunk & Gibbons, 1997; Collins, 1996; Suls & Miller, 1977; Suls & Wills, 1991; Wood, 1989, for reviews). According to the original formulation of social comparison theory (Festinger, 1954a), people utilize social comparison information principally because they are driven by a need for accurate perceptions of their abilities and opinions. People do so, as postulated by Festinger, because they aim to avoid potential disillusionment resulting from inaccurate assessments of these abilities and opinions.

However, as will be outlined later on, people not only have a desire to evaluate the accuracy of their abilities and opinions, they also appear to be fundamentally motivated to feel good about themselves and to maintain and develop a positive self-evaluation. Indeed, contemporary social psychologists acknowledge the notion that people in general tend to explain information about themselves in ways that are favoring the self and it is hardly surprising then, that when asked to compare themselves to people in similar situations, most individuals show a predominant disposition to see themselves as superior to others. Moreover, the tendency to look at oneself in a manner that will place oneself in the best possible light seems to promote one's psychological well-being and adjustment to misfortune and negative feedback (see Hoorens, 1993; Taylor & Brown, 1988, 1994, for reviews).

Research efforts over the foregoing decades have mainly addressed the issue of which factors influence individuals' social comparison desires and preferences (cf. Kruglanski & Mayseless, 1990; Wills & Suls, 1991; Wood, 1989). However, in recent years social comparison research has more strongly focused on the effects of social comparison on individuals' self-evaluation and their subjective well-being (see Suls & Miller, 1977; Suls & Wills, 1991; Wood, 1989, for reviews). Furthermore, even though several authors noted the potential importance of social comparison in intimate relationships (Surra & Milardo, 1991; Titus, 1980), only a few studies have explored social comparison processes regarding an intimate relationship in general, and even fewer have examined the consequences of social comparison for the evaluation of the quality of a relationship.

Following the central notion in Wills' (1981) downward comparison theory, the present thesis focuses on the effects of engaging in downward social comparison (i.e. comparison with other people who are involved in intimate relationships that appear to fare badly) upon the perceived quality of the relationship. More precisely, this thesis attempts to examine experimentally whether cognitive downward comparison can improve the perceived quality of the relationship. Such cognitive downward comparison is expected to be a particularly beneficial strategy for people who experience discontentment in their relationship with their partner to reevaluate their situation, resulting in an increased level of relationship satisfaction and commitment to the relationship. Additionally, it is explored whether cognitive downward comparison exerts a stronger positive effect on relationship quality for individuals high in social comparison orientation, that is, for those who display a personality disposition to compare their own situation to that of others.

However, the potentially beneficial consequences of downward social comparisons notwithstanding, the reactions to discussing overtly such comparison may be considerably less positive. Usually, when someone else publicly discusses his or her good fortune, such disclosures may lead to a paradoxical situation in which social practices and social structures dictate that we (i.e., as observers of such behaviors) must rejoice at someone else's success whereas privately our feelings may be those of annoyance and envy (cf. Smith, Parrott, Ozer, & Moniz, 1994).

It could become even worse when people speak highly of themselves and brag about their own success by suggesting that they are better off than others. Brickman and Bulman (1977) were among the first to suggest that many people find others annoying when they make explicit social comparisons and that could engender an antipathy to someone who engages in explicit downward social comparison activities. Thus, it can be assumed that positive statements made about accomplishments in a way that deprecates others' achievements or characteristics will irritate other people and evoke an antipathy for the individual who makes boastful self-evaluations at the expense of others. More specifically, such overt downward social comparison may be considered as socially inappropriate and undesirable.

Indeed, evidence suggests that people made fewer downward, but not fewer upward, social comparisons and reported less positive affective consequences when they considered social comparison as more socially inappropriate (Hemphill & Lehman, 1991). Therefore, in addition to investigating the effects of downward comparison on the perceived quality of the relationship, in this thesis the reactions to someone who engages openly in downward social comparison are also examined to further explore the notion that social comparison in general, and downward comparison in particular, is socially undesirable.

Overall, this line of reasoning suggests that comparison of one's own situation with that of others who are doing worse in the same situation may be a mixed blessing. The present thesis sought to explore both positive consequences of cognitive downward comparison for individuals' well-being on the one hand, and the possible negative reactions to downward comparison activities when they are made in public on the other hand.

Prior to discussing the present series of studies in more detail, I would like to first introduce the social comparison literature. Next, the potential significance of downward comparison for the evaluation of relationship quality will be addressed. In addition to these positive consequences for the perceived quality of the relationship, possible negative reactions to those people who openly engage in downward social comparison will also be addressed. Further, the notion of individual differences in social comparison orientation is introduced and the possibility that such individual differences may exert an influence on the consequences of cognitive downward comparison and also on the reactions to overt downward comparisons will be considered. In the final section of this introductory chapter, I will give a brief outline of the present thesis.